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| As the founder of the Methodic School, Asclepiades was the first known physician who spoke about what is known today as molecular medicine. ((https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19567383/)) | As the founder of the Methodic School, Asclepiades was the first known physician who spoke about what is known today as molecular medicine. ((https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19567383/)) |
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| === American Medical System History === | ===== History of Medicine ===== |
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| | ==== American Medical System ==== |
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| AMA Archive 1860 History of Medicine in America p22 "It was not until 1760 that the General Assembly of New York ordained that "no person whatsoever should practice as physician or surgeon, in the city of New York, before he shall have been examined on physic and surgery, and approved of and admitted by one of His Majesty's Council, the Judges of the Supreme Court, the King's Attorney General and the Mayor of the city of New York for the time being, or by any three or more of them taking to their assistance for such examination, such proper person or persons as they in their discretion shall see fit" ((https://ama.nmtvault.com/jsp/PsImageViewer.jsp;jsessionid=D007D93A7EB11B15E8853578FB8E1734?doc_id=e7b3b08e-5d2a-40d6-ac45-b8b6ada9325f%2Fama_arch%2FAD000001%2F0041HIST)) | AMA Archive 1860 History of Medicine in America p22 "It was not until 1760 that the General Assembly of New York ordained that "no person whatsoever should practice as physician or surgeon, in the city of New York, before he shall have been examined on physic and surgery, and approved of and admitted by one of His Majesty's Council, the Judges of the Supreme Court, the King's Attorney General and the Mayor of the city of New York for the time being, or by any three or more of them taking to their assistance for such examination, such proper person or persons as they in their discretion shall see fit" ((https://ama.nmtvault.com/jsp/PsImageViewer.jsp;jsessionid=D007D93A7EB11B15E8853578FB8E1734?doc_id=e7b3b08e-5d2a-40d6-ac45-b8b6ada9325f%2Fama_arch%2FAD000001%2F0041HIST)) |
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| == The American Medical Association == | ===== Medical Groups and Organizations ===== |
| The AMA is a professional association and lobbying group of physicians and medical students. | |
| Their publication is Journal of the American Medical Association [[JAMA]] first edition 1883. | |
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| An 1845 resolution to the New York Medical Association by Dr. Nathan S. Davis, calling for a national medical convention, led to the establishment of the American Medical Association [[AMA]] in 1847. Scientific advancement, standards for medical education, launching a program of medical ethics, improved public health — these were the goals of the AMA. | ==== U.S. Medical Organizations ==== |
| | * The [[American Medical Association]] |
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| Since its founding in 1847 the AMA has played a crucial role in the development of medicine in the United States. Here’s a look at some key historical dates: | |
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| *1873* AMA Judicial Council founded to deal with medical ethical and constitutional controversies. | ===== Medical Philosophy ===== |
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| *1883* Journal of the American Medical Association is first published; Nathan Davis is first editor. | ==== Evidence-Based Medicine ==== |
| | Evidence-Based Medicine (EBM) has been described as, "the conscientious, explicity and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions in making decisions about the care of individual patients."((January 13, 1996 | D. L. Sackett et al | [[:BMJ]] | Evidence based medicine: what it is and what it isn't. | [[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2349778/|doi: 10.1136/bmj.312.7023.71]])) It is entirely unclear from this and other decisions how this distinguishes EBM from "medicine" most generally given that even that initially self-described anti-scientific schools of medicine (such as chiropractic medicine) have generally grown to be inclusive of scientific observation. It is more likely that EBM expresses a certain level of deference toward political institutions that use science as a banner of supremacism. |
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| *1906* AMA publishes first American Medical Directory listing over 128,000 licensed physicians in the U.S. and Canada. | === Pushback against EBM === |
| | "Evidence based medicine has been corrupted by corporate interests, failed regulation, and commercialisation of academia, argue these authors |
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| *1910* The [[Flexner Report]], Medical Education in the United States and Canada, funded by the [[Carnegie Foundation]] and supported by the AMA, is published and facilitates new standards for medical schools | The advent of evidence based medicine was a paradigm shift intended to provide a solid scientific foundation for medicine. The validity of this new paradigm, however, depends on reliable data from clinical trials, most of which are conducted by the pharmaceutical industry and reported in the names of senior academics. The release into the public domain of previously confidential pharmaceutical industry documents has given the medical community valuable insight into the degree to which industry sponsored clinical trials are misrepresented.1234 Until this problem is corrected, evidence based medicine will remain an illusion."((March 16, 2022 | Jon Jureidini and Leemon McHenry | The illusion of evidence based medicine | [[https://www.bmj.com/content/376/bmj.o702|doi: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.o702 ]])) |
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| *1927* AMA Council on Medical Education and Hospitals publishes -->>first list of hospitals approved for residency training<<-- | ==== Philanthropy Directed Medicine ==== |
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| *1943* AMA opens an office in Washington, D.C | === Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching - 1910 === |
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| *1950* AMA Education and Research Foundation established to help medical schools meet expenses and to help medical students. | Our historiographical research in this paper is based on an analysis of Flexner's Medical Education in the United States and Canada: A Report to the [[:Carnegie Foundation]] for the Advancement of Teaching (1910) and the available secondary scholarly, medical, and psychiatric literature on the subject. |
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| *1966* AMA publishes first edition of the Current Procedural Terminology (CPT), a system of standardized terms for medical procedures used to facilitate documentation. | By way of an introduction, textbooks and journal articles on Complementary and Alternative Medicine and Psychiatry are also briefly discussed. Finally, we will scrutinize gray literature and pamphlets published by both the American National Institutes of Health [[:NIH]] and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research [[:CIHR]], as these pertained to the relationship between the biomedical paradigm and CAM-related approaches after the publication of the [[:Flexner Report]] and, in particular, the inclusion of complementary and alternative therapies and approaches in psychiatry during the second half of the 20th century. This perspective will allow the impact of the Flexner Report to be placed within a contemporary context and its long-lasting effects analyzed. |
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| *1967* The United States Adopted Names (USAN) Council is established to determine nonproprietary designations for chemical compounds. | |
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| *1990* AMA Fellowship Residency Electronic Interactive Data Access System (FREIDA) describing residency programs in the United States is available in electronic form. | |
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| *2008* Ronald M. Davis, MD, then the AMA's immediate past president, apologizes for more than a century of AMA policies that excluded African-Americans from the AMA and that also barred them from some state and local medical societies. ((https://web.archive.org/web/20181207111306/https://www.ama-assn.org/about/ama-history/ama-history)) | |
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| ==== AMA Role in Pharmaceutical Industry ==== | |
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| *1849* AMA establishes a board to analyze quack remedies and nostrums and to enlighten the public in regard to the nature and danger of such remedies. The Department of Investigation (1913-1975) gathered and disseminated health fraud and quackery information for the public for over 60 years | |
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| == *1905* AMA establishes a council to set standards for drug manufacturing and advertising == | |
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| *1923* AMA promotes periodic examination of healthy persons | |
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| *1961* AMA recommends a [[nationwide vaccination]] using the Sabin oral vaccine against polio. | |
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| *1972* AMA launches war on smoking, urging the government to reduce and control the use of tobacco products and supporting legislation prohibiting the disbursement of [[tobacco]] samples. | |
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| *1973* AMA urges physicians to cooperate in a national program to combat hypertension. | |
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| *1986* AMA passes resolution opposing acts of discrimination against [[AIDS]] patients and any legislation that would lead to such categorical discrimination or that would affect patient-physician confidentiality. | |
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| *1996* AMA launches a crusade against health plan "gag clauses," resulting in these restrictive provisions being dropped by 5 leading managed care providers and laws prohibiting gag clauses in 16 states. | |
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| *1997* AMA launches the [[National Patient Safety Foundation]] to help ensure that all patients in all health care settings receive health care services safely. | |
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| *2005* AMA spearheads effort with 129 other health care and patient groups, which results in the passage and signing of the [[Patient Safety and Quality Improvement Act]]. ((https://web.archive.org/web/20181207111306/https://www.ama-assn.org/about/ama-history/ama-history)) | |
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| === Philanthropy Directed Medicine === | |
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| == Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching - 1910 == | |
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| Our historiographical research in this paper is based on an analysis of Flexner's Medical Education in the United States and Canada: A Report to the [[Carnegie Foundation]] for the Advancement of Teaching (1910) and the available secondary scholarly, medical, and psychiatric literature on the subject. | |
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| By way of an introduction, textbooks and journal articles on Complementary and Alternative Medicine and Psychiatry are also briefly discussed. Finally, we will scrutinize gray literature and pamphlets published by both the American National Institutes of Health [[NIH]] and the Canadian Institutes of Health Research [[CIHR]], as these pertained to the relationship between the biomedical paradigm and CAM-related approaches after the publication of the [[Flexner Report]] and, in particular, the inclusion of complementary and alternative therapies and approaches in psychiatry during the second half of the 20th century. This perspective will allow the impact of the Flexner Report to be placed within a contemporary context and its long-lasting effects analyzed. | |
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| The Period Ensuing from the Flexner Report from 1910s to 1940s | The Period Ensuing from the Flexner Report from 1910s to 1940s |
| The decades following the publication of the Flexner Report witnessed considerable pressure on all nontraditional forms of medical and health care training, which would nowadays be associated with CAM, as “a group of diverse medical and health care systems, practices, and products that are not presently considered to be part of conventional medicine” [14]. In his report, Flexner had made the following claims about the new “standardization” of American medical education. ((https://web.archive.org/web/20210329140323/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3543812/)) | The decades following the publication of the Flexner Report witnessed considerable pressure on all nontraditional forms of medical and health care training, which would nowadays be associated with CAM, as “a group of diverse medical and health care systems, practices, and products that are not presently considered to be part of conventional medicine” [14]. In his report, Flexner had made the following claims about the new “standardization” of American medical education. ((https://web.archive.org/web/20210329140323/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3543812/)) |
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| ==== American Medical Schools ==== | |
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| AMA Archive 1860 History of Medicine | ==== Flexner Report Replaces Homeopathic with Allopathic ==== |
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| p 14 "The medical profession in the United States, and indeed, throughout the civilized world, constitutes an important part of society; for while, on the one hand its ranks can boast, not only of names of the highest eminence in every department of science and literature, but can also claim to be equal with the foremost in every enterprise for extending human knowledge, and ameliorating human suffering, its free access to the homes and firesides of all classes, gives it a moral and social influence of the most potent character." | Logically, no other outcome is possible. The ebbing vitality of [[homeopathic]] [medical] schools is a striking demonstration of the incompatibility of science and dogma. […] Science, once embraced, will conquer the whole. Homeopathy has two options: one to withdraw into the isolation in which alone any peculiar tenet can maintain itself; the other to put that tenet into the melting-pot. Historically it undoubtedly played an important part in discrediting empirical [[allopathy]]. But laboratories of physiology and pharmacology are now doing that work far more effectively than homeopathy; and they are at the same time performing a constructive task for which homeopathy, as such, is unfitted. It will be clear, then, why, when outlining a system of schools for the training of physicians on scientific lines, no specific provision is made for homeopathy. […] “A new school of [medical] practitioners has arisen,” says Dr. [William] Osler, “which cares nothing for homeopathy [...]. (The original text can be found in: Flexner, 1910 |
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| p 19 "A Guide in Small Pox and Measles" published in 1677 is said to be the first medical publication in America. ((https://ama.nmtvault.com/jsp/PsImageViewer.jsp;jsessionid=D007D93A7EB11B15E8853578FB8E1734?doc_id=e7b3b08e-5d2a-40d6-ac45-b8b6ada9325f%2Fama_arch%2FAD000001%2F0041HIST)) | |
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| | ==== Western Medicine A History of Deceit ==== |
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| === Flexner Report Replaces Homeopathic with Allopathic === | The True History of Deceit Within the Rise of Western Medicine |
| | The Last American Vagabond ~ Posted on March 3, 2016 ~ Author Ryan Cristián |
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| Logically, no other outcome is possible. The ebbing vitality of [[homeopathic]] [medical] schools is a striking demonstration of the incompatibility of science and dogma. […] Science, once embraced, will conquer the whole. Homeopathy has two options: one to withdraw into the isolation in which alone any peculiar tenet can maintain itself; the other to put that tenet into the melting-pot. Historically it undoubtedly played an important part in discrediting empirical [[allopathy]]. But laboratories of physiology and pharmacology are now doing that work far more effectively than homeopathy; and they are at the same time performing a constructive task for which homeopathy, as such, is unfitted. It will be clear, then, why, when outlining a system of schools for the training of physicians on scientific lines, no specific provision is made for homeopathy. […] “A new school of [medical] practitioners has arisen,” says Dr. [William] Osler, “which cares nothing for homeopathy [...]. (The original text can be found in: Flexner, 1910 | In the early years of the American empire, when there was still a free market in the medical field, there were many thriving homeopathic hospitals and medical colleges. Over a century ago the Carnegie and Rockefeller foundations decided to engineer the medical curriculum through their grants and donations to the many different medical schools they deemed could be profitable for their associated businesses. As they have done with most facets of American society, they decided that they would reform medical education in America to suit their financial desires. |
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| | There were many different types of medical schools from homeopathic and herbal, to what we know today as modern western medicine. The Rockefeller and Carnegie foundations sought to patent the petrochemical medical education as the sole practice in the United States. The natural health colleges were not pushing enough chemical drugs, and those drugs were primarily owned by the Carnegies and the Rockefellers. |
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| | So out came the authorized preordained [[:Flexner Report]], funded by the two foundations, that called on American medical schools to enact higher admission and graduation standards, and in so many words, stated that it was far too easy to open a medical school. This report was used to shift from holistic to pharmaceutical practice. The [[:American Medical Association]], who were evaluating the various medical colleges, made it their job to target and shut down the larger more respected homeopathic medical colleges. Carnegie and Rockefeller began to immediately shower hundreds of millions of dollars on the medical schools that focused on teaching drug intensive medicine. ((https://web.archive.org/web/20220409112425/https://www.thelastamericanvagabond.com/true-history-deceit-within-rise-western-medicine/)) |
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| ===== Major Medical Topics ===== | ===== Major Medical Topics ===== |
